Coping.org: Tools for Coping with Life's Stressors

Home
Up
Critical Think
Fallacies
Resources
Visual Cues
Stories
Innovation
InnovateSites

Tools for Improving Your Critical Thinking

 

Overview of Critical Thinking

 

Content:

What is Thinking 

What is Thinking Process? 

  • Sensation- Eyes, Ears, Nose, Tongue, Skin provide our bodies with sensations which they pick up from the outside world. These sensations are transmitted by nerves to the biological structures which will translate them.
  • Biological-the sensations provided by the senses (eyes, ears, hands, fingers & skin, nose, tongue)  are inputted by nerves to the Brain which then translates, decodes, and encodes messages and sends them out through the nervous system
  • Psychological-Takes the messages from the brain and translates them into perceptions and reactions.
  • Cognitive-Translations through the biological and psychological dimensions of the thinking process of the perceptions and reactions into concepts, ideas, assumptions, suppositions, inferences, hypotheses, questions, beliefs, premises, logical arguments,  etc...
  • Communications-Takes the messages from the brain and translates them into verbal, non-verbal, and written language to communicate the thoughts and ideas which were generated.

Stages of Cognitive Development as defined by Jean Piaget:

  • 1 Birth to 2 years old - no thinking structures (called schemas) and starts to develop such schemas through exploration of senses and experimentation with environment
  • 2. Preoperational Stage: 2-7 years old - develop language skills and more sophisticated cognitive structures but still is prelogical.
    • Not capable of conservation-ability to understand that substance does not change although it changes shape or form
    • Incapable of decentering-ability to see things from another perspective
  • 3. Concrete Operational Stage: 7 years to Adolescence - begin to grasp conservation and decentering. Begins to question life. Solves problems but haphazardly.
  • 4. Formal Operations Stage:  Adolescence and onward - now capable of sophisticated logical thought. Can think in abstract. Can think hypothetically and solve problems using the logic of combinations

Note: Many theorists postulate a fifth Stage:

  • 5. Dialectical Reasoning  - stage beyond logic where critical thinking lies. Ability to perceive the frequent paradoxes in life and question and analyze the assumptions that underlie logic. 

What is Critical Thinking 

Critical thinking consists of three steps:

  • 1. Becoming aware that assumptions exist
  • 2. Making assumptions explicit
  • 3. Assessing their accuracy
    • Do these assumptions make sense?
    • Do these assumptions fit reality as we understand and live it?
    • Under what conditions do these assumptions seem to hold true? Under what conditions do they seem false?

Misconceptions about critical thinking

  • It is wholly a negative process-it tears down ideas and puts nothing in their place (rather it is a positive process to put things in a more realistic perspective)
  • It will lead to relativistic freeze-the inability to make commitments to people, ideas, structures. (rather commitments are informed ones.)
  • It seems to involve traumatic change-one is expected to abandon old assumptions continually. (rather: Some beliefs stay the same-they are simply more informed)
  • It is dispassionate and cold. (rather: it is highly emotive and liberating to be free of past assumptions and the anxiety of self-scrutiny)

Why is critical thinking important?

  • All actions, decisions, and judgments spring from assumptions - if they are unchecked or inappropriate, we will make poor decisions and wrong judgments
  • In personal relationships we learn to keep our lines of communications open-we avoid uncritically reproducing patterns of the modeled interactions we learned from our parental interaction
  • In the workplace we avoid stagnation and atrophy and are willing to challenge the current paradigms which are uncritically accepted and  may have come down in the workplace from a time and thinking which is no longer relevant to our current reality.

What does the absence of thinking critically look like?

  • We blindly reproduce the damaging reactions we have learned
  • We blindly accept at face value all justifications given by organizations and political leaders
  • We blindly believe TV commercials
  • We blindly trust political commercials
  • We blindly accept and say that if the textbook says it it must be so
  • We blindly accept and say that if the organization does it it must be right

What does Critical Thinking Look Like?

  • Contextual sensitivity - being sensitive to stereotypes about people from a particular group and trying to accept others at face value unconditionally
  • Perspective thinking - trying to get into the other person's head, or walking in the other person's shoes so as to see the world the way that person sees and perceives the world.
  • Tolerance for ambiguity - ability to accept multiple interpretations of the same situation
  • Alert to premature ultimatums - invoking a powerful idea or concept which inspires such reverence that any further debate is forestalled. e.g. a politician invokes "democracy"

Characteristics of People who Excel at Critical Thinking 

Truth seeking: A courageous desire for the best knowledge, even if such knowledge fails to support or undermines one's preconceptions, beliefs or self interests.

Open-mindedness: Tolerance to divergent views, self-monitoring for possible bias.

Analyticity: Demanding the application of reason and evidence, alert to problematic situations, inclined to anticipate consequences.

Systematicity: Valuing organization, focus and diligence to approach problems of all levels of complexity.

Critical Thinking Self-Confidence: Trusting of one's own reasoning skills and seeing oneself as a good thinker.

Inquisitiveness: Curious and eager to acquire knowledge and learn explanations even when the applications of the knowledge are not immediately apparent.

Cognitive Maturity: Prudence in making, suspending, or revising judgment. An awareness     that multiple solutions can be acceptable. An appreciation of the need to reach closure even in the absence of complete knowledge.

These characteristics are measured by California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory: http://www.calpress.com/cctdi.html.

What are the Major Components in Critical Thinking?

  • Perception
  • Assumptions
  • Emotion
  • Language
  • Argument
  • Fallacy
  • Logic
  • Problem Solving

Perception

  • The way we receive and translate our experience
  • Also a significant filtering system
  • How we perceive defines how we think

For more information on this site about perceptions see:

Assumptions

  • Central to Critical Thinking
  • Implied, not conscious of them
  • Not always bad
  • Rest on notion some ideas are obvious
  • Make us comfortable with present beliefs & shut out alternatives

For more information on this site about assumptions see:

Emotion

  • Trying to “Leave emotion out of it!” is  Impossible.
  • Part of everything we do and think
  • Personal barriers are a given
  • Critical thinker don’t ignore or deny emotions; accept and manage them

Language

  • Thinking can’t be separated from
  • Three primary purposes:
  • Inform
  • Persuade
  • Explain
  • Language denotes and connotes
  • Metaphors

For more information on this site about language see:

Metaphors

Metaphors are powerful language tools which influence how we think and problem solve. Metaphors are figures of speech which can give great color and depth to our language. Metaphors can be short phrases, stories, or poems. A metaphor is a verbal message which can be easily visualized by the reader or listener. 

For more information on this site about metaphors see: 

Argument

  • Claim, used to persuade that something is (or not) true or should (or not) be done
  • Contains three basic elements
    • Issue
    • One or more reasons (premises)
    • One or more conclusions
  • Can be valid or invalid based on structure
  • Only premises & conclusions true or false
  • Goal of Critical Thinking is sound arguments
  • Valid (proper structure)
  • With true premises
  • Sound argument has both: so the conclusion must be true
  • Therein the beauty and usefulness of logic

Fallacy

  • Reasoning that doesn’t meet criteria for sound argument is fallacious
  • Valid
  • True premises
  • Complete (all relevant information)
  • Fallacy is incorrect pattern of reasoning
  • Does not always mean conclusion is false
  • Ads & editorials

Logic

Two methods of reasoning
Deductive
  • Facts, certainty, syllogisms, validity, truth of premises sound arguments & conclusions
Inductive
  • Diverse facts, probability, generalizations, hypotheses, analogies inductive strength

Logic problems Problem Solving

  • Logic problems like any problem
  • Techniques:
  • Understand the problem.  Read & heed
  • ID unknowns & knowns
  • Relationships between these (visual aids)
  • Generate strategy from step above
  • Apply and solve.  Repeat if necessary

For more information on Logic arguments on this site see:

Requirements for Effective Critical Thinking 

Six Cognitive Skills
  • Interpretation
  • Analysis
  • Evaluation
  • Inference
  • Explanation
  • Self-regulation
Affective Dispositions “a critical spirit”
  • Several
 

Interpretation

  • Comprehend & express meaning or significance of wide variety of experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria.

Analysis

  • Identify the intended & actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions, or other forms of representation intended to express belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information, or opinion

Evaluation

  • Assess the credibility of statements or other representations which are accounts or descriptions of a person’s perception, experience, situation, judgment, belief, or opinion; and to assess the logical strength of the actual or intended inferential relationships among statements, descriptions, questions, or other forms of representation

Inference

  • Identify and secure elements needed to draw reasonable conclusions; to form conjectures and hypotheses; to consider relevant information & to educe the consequences flowing from data, statements, principles, evidence, judgments, beliefs, opinions, concepts, descriptions, questions, or other forms of  representation

Explanation

  • State the results of one’s reasoning; justify that reasoning in terms of evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, and contextual considerations upon which one’s results were based; and to present one’s reasoning in the form of cogent arguments.

Self-regulation

  • Self consciously to monitor one’s cognitive activities, the elements used in those activities, and the results educed, particularly by applying skills in analysis and evaluation to one’s own inferential judgments with a view toward questions, confirming, validation, or correcting either one’s reasoning or results.

Affective Dispositions

  • Something else is needed
  • More to Critical Thinking than just cognitive skills
  • Human beings more than just thinking machines
  • “the Critical Spirit” (affective dispositions)
  • A probing inquisitiveness
  • A keenness of mind
  • A zealous dedication to reason
  • A hunger or eagerness for reliable information

Critical Thinking is . . .

  • How you approach
  • Problems
  • Questions
  • Issues
  • The best way we know to get to the truth.
  • Experts conclude: Critical Thinking is pervasive, purposeful human phenomenon
  • Ideal critical thinker characterized also by how he or she approaches life and living in general

Approaches to life characterizing good Critical Thinking:

  • Inquisitiveness about wide range of issues
  • Concern to become and stay well-informed
  • Alertness to opportunities to use Critical Thinking
  • Self confidence in one’s abilities to reason
  • Open-mindedness about divergent world views
  • Flexibility in considering alternatives & opinions
  • Understanding the opinions of other people
  • Fair-mindedness in appraising reasoning
  • Honesty in facing one’s own biases, prejudices, stereotypes, egocentric, and sociocentric tendencies
  • Prudence in suspending, making, altering judgments
  • Willingness to reconsider and revise views
  • Clarity in stating question or concern
  • Orderliness in working with complexity
  • Diligence in seeking relevant information
  • Reasonableness in selecting & applying criteria
  • Care in focusing attention on the concern at hand
  • Persistence through difficulties
  • Precision to the degree permitted by subject & circumstances

Value of Critical Thinking

Why is Critical Thinking of Value?

  • You can answer—why of value to you?
  • What’s value of cognitive skills?
  • What’s value of the critical spirit?
  • Would these mean more success at what you do?
  • Would it mean better grades for students?
    • Grades – Yes!
    • 1,100 college students
    • Significant correlation between Critical Thinking scores & college GPA
  • Critical Thinking skills can be learned
  • Significant correlation between Critical Thinking and reading comprehension

Main Purpose of College Experience

  • Achievement of liberal (liberated) education.  It’s about
  • Learning to learn
  • Learning to think for one’s self
  • Leads away from naïve acceptance of authority
  • Leads above self-defeating relativism
  • Beyond ambiguous contextualism
  • Culminates in principled, reflective judgment

All of Us Need Critical Thinking and Thinkers

  • Critical Thinking is fundamental, if not essential for, “a rational and democratic” society
    • Electorate
    • Judiciary
    • International commerce
  • Business and civic leaders maybe more interested in Critical Thinking than even educators
  • Necessary condition for the success of democratic institutions and free market society

Role of Language in Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

Language is used for three purposes

  • To describe
  • To inform
  • To persuade

Persuasion is the manner by which we attempt to convince others to "our way of thinking" about a subject therefore:

  • logic
  • fallacious reasoning 
  • problem solving all involve persuasion

Language Forms:

  • Emotionally charged language-cognitive vs emotional meanings
  • Manipulative language: cons, doublespeak, jargon & bureaucrats
  • Rhetorical devices
    • Slanting
    • weasel words
    • fine print disclaimers
    • obfuscation
  • Emotional appeal-Advertising

For more information on this site about language and Metaphors see:

Logic in Critical Thinking

Deduction vs Induction Logic=Scientific Method

DEDUCTION
  • Draw a conclusion that follows know facts stated in premises
  • Relies on certainty based on connection of premises & conclusion
  • Valid Argument vs Sound Argument
  • Deductive reasoning can be used when the premises (reasons, facts, evidence, etc.) prove with absolute certainty that the conclusion is true, assuming the premises are true
INDUCTION
  • Derives probable conclusion from observation of diverse facts
  • Learning from experience
  • Argument by analogy
  • Hypothetical Reasoning
  • Inductive Reasoning is required when you cannot ascertain the absolute certainty of the conclusion based on given evidence, but you can establish probability

Terminology

  • Inductive strength:  Deductive validity, truth of premises, sound
  • Probability: certainty
  • Reasoning from diverse facts: reasoning from known facts or assumed known facts
  • Types of Logical Arguments:
    • Generalization arguments
    • Hypothesis arguments 
    • Analogical arguments
    • Conditional arguments
    • Syllogisms
    • Venn Diagrams

Valid vs Invalid Arguments

Hypothetical syllogisms (conditional arguments) can have two valid and two invalid structures
Structures of Syllogisms Antecedent Consequent
valid Affirming (modus poens) Denying  (modus tellens)
invalid Denying Affirming

5 Most Common Fallacies

  • Non Sequitur-irrelevant reason-premise no relationship to conclusion
  • Ad hominum-person’s character attacked to discredit arguer rather than argument
  • Post hoc ergo propter hoc-generalization-one event which follows was caused by 1st
  • Slippery slope-black & white-no gray or middle ground-argues against 1st step since eventually follow through to the last one
  • Appeal to Emotion-emotional appeals rather than logical reasons to persuade
 

Logic Problems

  • The Premise – establishes the setting of the problem, subjects, how subjects are related, number of subjects (4-10)
  • The Conditions- rules which impose specific restrictions upon relationship among subjects (2-10 conditions)
  • The Question-questions about relationship-require deductive analysis

For more information on Logic arguments on this site see:

A Critical Thinking Problem Solving Model

 
Problem Solving Content Issues
  • Description of Problem
  • Factors: Constructive vs Limiting
  • Ownership
  • Scope of Problem
  • Consequence of Problem
  • Alternative Solutions
  • Rank Ordered Solutions

 
Process Issues in Problem Solving
  • Self-awareness of the problem solver
  • Motivation of the problem solver
  • Decision making involved in selecting solution by solver
  • Execution of the solution decided upon

 
Components of Problem
  • Visceral Components of the Problem
  • Size of Problem - costs, risks, losses
  • Sensory Input
    • How’s it look?
    • How’s it sound?
    • How’s it taste?
    • How’s its smell?
    • How’s it feel?
  • Personal Components of the Problem
  • Inside perspective of problem solver of the problem
 

If on Team other members as problem solvers & their perspective

Low self-esteem of problem solver is the hidden component in problem solving which must be addressed to insure productive solutions
 

What is Needed to Improve Problem Solving Process

  • Unconditional acceptance & non-judgmental attitude of fellow solvers
  • Respect for each participant’s input
  • Freedom to openly express emotional response to the problem & solutions
  • Defined limits and boundaries on problem solving process
 

Ways of Encouraging Creativity in Problem Solving

  • Create the desire to be creative-you must want it
  • Expand Knowledge & Skills of language by reading more to be creative thinker
  • It takes effort to create-genius is 1% inspiration & 99% perspiration-Edison
  • Ferment creativity-give it time
  • Evaluate and validate creative ideas
  • Use Brainstorming
  • Use Starbursting
 

Rules for Brainstorming

  • Set a time frame to be completed
  • Be clear what problem you are trying to solve
  • All ideas should be heard.
  • No idea is too wild to be expressed.
  • Quantity is wanted; each idea coming to mind should be expressed.
  • Combining ideas for improvement is highly desirable.
  • Criticism or negative discussion regarding ideas is absolutely forbidden.
 

Starbursting

  • Focuses on a topic and radiates outward with questions
  • Here anything goes
  • Any questions are legitimate
  • More the questions the better
  • Begin by asking: “What are the Questions?”

 
Problem Solving through Intimate Engagement
  • Engager’s have a history of success with similar problems
  • Dismisser’s had history of failure with similar problems-captive of the past
  • Rather than dismiss, engage the problem intimately by getting into it
  • Be willing to take the time to deal with the problem
 

Engagement Takes:

  • Effort to deal with it
  • Time to mull it over
  • Looking at and not averting or looking away
 

Rules of Engagement with Problems

  • Become sensitive to your own confusion with a problem
  • Do not permit yourself to be confused-do not tolerate confusion
  • Use visual imagery to remember facts
  • Relate the information to people, animals or situations
  • Make your visualization vivid, dynamic, interactive, & unusual
 

Reality Testing of Possible Solutions to Problem

  • Critical Path Analysis
  • Decision Trees
  • Force Field Analysis
  • PMI    Plus – Minus – Interesting
  • SWOT Analysis – Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats

Critical Path Analysis

  • Calculate length of time to complete project
  • List all activities in plan by: start date, duration, if parallel or sequential
  • If dependent on what do they depend
  • Graph it out, Plot tasks on graph
  • Schedule Activities
  • Critical path-longest sequence of dependent activities that lead to completion of plan
 

Decision Trees

  • Start with the decision which needs to be made draw a box
  • Draw to right possible solutions on lines
  • At End of each line if result is uncertain draw circle if other decision draw box
  • From the other decisions draw lines for options which can be taken
  • Calculate decision which has greatest worth to you and give it a value
  • Estimate probability of each uncertainty

 

Force Field Analysis
  • List all forces for change in one column
  • List all forces against change in other
  • Assign a score to each force 1(weak)-5(strong)
  • Draw diagram showing forces for & against and size of forces
  • Helps weigh importance of factors as to if pursue or not the plan
 

PMI- Plus/Minus/Interesting

  • Plus Column: all positive points of taking the action
  • Negative Column: all negative effects
  • Interesting Column: extended implications of taking action, whether positive or negative
  • Assign positive or negative scores
 

SWOT Analysis

  • Strengths: advantages, what you do well
  • Weaknesses: could be improved, done badly, should be avoided
  • Opportunities: good chances, interesting trends
  • Threats: obstacles, competition, are required specifications changing

For more information on Problem Solving on this site go to: 

 

 

Coping.org is a Public Service of James J. Messina, Ph.D. & Constance M. Messina, Ph.D.,  Email: jjmess@tampabay.rr.com  ©1999-2007 James J. Messina, Ph.D. & Constance Messina, Ph.D.  Note: Original materials on this site may be reproduced for your personal, educational, or noncommercial use as long as you credit the authors and website.