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Critical Thinking
APA Style
Writing Course
Writing Tips
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 Tips on Improving Your
Technical Writing Skills
Content:
Organization of
Technical Papers
1. Paper Introduction: Always have an
introduction which introduces what topics the paper will be covering.
2.
Section
Summaries: Always
include a short summary statement of what you covered for each major section
of your paper. This provides a smooth transition to the next section of the
paper.
3.
Paragraph
transition statements: When moving to a new thought in a new paragraph make
sure last sentence of previous paragraph makes a transition possible to a new
thought.
4.
Paper
Conclusion: Always have a conclusion which summarizes the main points on
each of the topics covered in the paper and lists the conclusions the reader can
walk away with after reading this paper
In your conclusion but try to avoid saying the redundant
comment such as: Conclusions, which can be drawn as in the following sample
conclusion section. Example:
In this paper we reviewed
the psychoanalytic and neo-analytic theories and their coverage of the
acting-out personality trait of low self-esteem. Conclusions which can be drawn
from this are that both theorists would support the concept of the acting out
trait and be able to intertwine it in their own works. In the end, each theorist
would explain it to something that had happen in the person’s childhood that
had affected them in order to end up with a acting out trait and through therapy
the answer would find its way out.
Edited:
In this paper we reviewed
the psychoanalytic and neo-analytic theories and their coverage of the
acting-out personality trait of low self-esteem. Both theorists supported the
concept of the acting out trait, which was easily distilled from their
respective theories. Both theorists explained the acting out trait was due to
something happening in childhood, which affected people and that through therapy
a better understanding of the causes of the trait would be clarified.
Tone of Technical Papers
1. Be technical and scientific in your tone: Technical writing needs to be technical not folksy. It is imperative that
the tenor and tone of the paper is professional and scientific. You can use I
statements but it is preferred to use third person when talking about the facts
and data to insure a more professional air in discussing the theoretical
approach (s) you researched for your paper.
2. Demonstrate self-assurance and self confidence in
your tone used in paper: When writing a research paper it is important that you demonstrate to
your audience that you are sure of yourself, confident in the material you are
presenting, and not tentative about presenting your research clearly and
exactly.
3. Do not use First or Second Person in technical or
scientific papers:
-
When you open your paper: Do not say: In this
paper, we will examine the two theoretical models of Piaget and
Allport. Do say: In this paper the theoretical models of Piaget
and Allport will be examined.
-
When explaining a theoretical perspective of a
theorist: Do not say: A basic drive according to George Kelly's
perspective is that each of us tries to understand the world and we
do so in many different ways. or A basic drive according to George
Kelly's perspective is that you try to understand the world and you
do so in many different ways. Do say: A basic drive according to
George Kelly's perspective is that people try to understand the world and
they do so in many different ways.
-
When
you are stating an opinion and do not use the first or second person always
use third person in technical papers. So do not use the
statement: I think. Rather state your opinion by saying the opinion.
Example:
I think that he would agree with the assumption
that the two are closely related. I think that Jung would be able to incorporate
each of the personality traits of low self-esteem into his psychological types. Edited:
Jung would agree with the assumption that the two are
closely related. He would be able to incorporate each of the personality traits
of low self-esteem into his psychological types.
4. Do Not Snow:
Do
not try to “SNOW “ your audience with a barrage of words, filler, fluff,
and facts. Keep it simple, keep it straight, and keep it appropriate.
Example: Here is a sample introduction from a paper
on Freud & Adler
The history of psychology began under the broad subject of philosophy.
Ancient philosophers such as Socrates and Aristotle were key players in their
field. Not until the late nineteenth century did the science of psychology even
exist. The beginning of modern psychology can be credited almost exclusively to
one man, Sigmund Freud. With Freud’s idea of psychoanalysis he theoretically
drew out an extensive roadmap for others to follow. This is the case of the
neo-analytical theorist Alfred Adler. In this paper I will explain both the
Freudian and Adlerian approaches to understanding and resolving the low
self-esteem personality trait of acting out.
Edited:
Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the first complete
scientific-like body of work on the development of human personality. The
neo-analyst Alfred Adler used Freud’s extensive roadmap to develop his own
theory. This paper will explore the Freudian and Adlerian approaches to
understanding low self-esteem and the personality trait of acting out.
Requirement For Use of Quotes
in Research
& Technical Papers
-
Most technical research papers are expected to contain
original quotes from researchers or research relevant to the topic of the
paper. Technical research papers assigned by Dr. Messina in his
classes must use quotes from original source texts. This means by
the authorities, whose points of view, you are researching.
-
Quotes must be
presented in the body of the text and immediately referenced by (author, year,
page #). In the References section of the paper this original source document
but be completely referenced
using APA style
-
When using a quote, you must use Author's name in the
reference only if you did not use the author's name within the sentence in
which the quote is used. Example: Kelly states: "Constructs are
the channels in which one's mental processes run. They are two-way streets
along which one may travel to reach conclusions. They make it possible to
anticipate the changing tides of events." Use: (1955, p.126) Example:
"Constructs are the channels in which one's mental processes run.
They are two-way streets along which one may travel to reach conclusions.
They make it possible to anticipate the changing tides of events. "Do
use: (Kelly,1955, p.126). In the Reference section of the paper,
the source for this quote would appear as follows: Kelly, G. (1955). The
Psychology of Personal Constructs. W.W. Norton & Company, New York.
-
In the sentence following the quote go on to explain
the meaning of the quote but do not say such things as: This quote means....
Example: This is a quote by Kelly which basically explains how in
people's minds they set up systems which they refer to in specific events. Edit:
Kelly points out that people set up systems in their mind to which
they refer in specific events.
APA Style Tips
Use the APA format. Be sure you have all components of the style for your
paper down pat. Use the format papers given you as well as the APA guides
available on this site.
For
PSY 230 click here to download Word Document of APA format sample
For
PSY 280 click here to download Word Document of APA format sample
Style of Writing in Technical Papers
1. Keep it Crisp: In writing your research paper you must keep your language simple and
crisp. Simple: concisely with out extra verbiage.
Crisp: to the point, not running around the mill to say
what you want said.
2. Eliminate all Fluff and Fillers Eliminate all fluff, word fillers, and extraneous verbiage from your
papers. E.g.: Here is a fluff filled Introduction to a paper followed by a more
technical introduction: Example:
Over the past century,
psychology has come a long way. The beginning of modern psychology, however, is
credited to Sigmund Freud. Through his analytical techniques and explanations,
several newer theorists expanded on Freud’s ideas to create their own
hypotheses, such is the case with neo-analyst Karen Horney. Each theorist has
his/her own explanations and therapies for individuals with low self-esteem.
However, the nine types of personality are not easily paired with Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory or Horney’s neo-analytic theory. Therefore, these
therapists would focus on key elements of the personality traits that parallel
ideas in their own theories. In this paper, both a Freud’s and Horney’s
perspective will explain the looking-good personality type. Later, low
self-esteem will be discussed in relation to the looking-good personality.
Edited:
Sigmund Freud and Karen Horney
developed theories and therapies related to individuals with low self-esteem.
However the nine personality traits of low self-esteem identified by Messina
(1999-2001) are not easily paired exactly to either theory.
In this paper, both Freud’s (Psychoanalytic) and Horney’s
(Neo-analytic) perspectives will be used to explain the “Looking Good”
personality trait of low self-esteem. (See how the third person perspective is
used, in this paper… this is technically more correct and sounds professional)
3. Be Sparing in Use of Verbiage: Do not use extra words to start new sections like: To begin, or I
will begin this paper by looking at… Example:
To begin,
the psychoanalytic approach was developed by Sigmund
Freud. Edited: Sigmund Freud
developed the psychoanalytic approach. Example:
First we
will look at the psychoanalytic theory of personality
Edited:
Start your
section with the first sentence, which follows this statement.
4. Use Economy of Words Try to use an ECONOMY of WORDS:
Example:
According to Freud, looking-good people would be fixated in the anal
stage. Looking-good individuals are generally passive-aggressive. They dislike
personal conflict and will avoid it if possible. Also, people with this
personality type tend to be organized, appear to be “together” or “with
it,” obstinate and independent, all of which are characteristics of anal
fixation. Besides being fixated, looking-good people use defense mechanisms to
reduce their anxiety. They commonly use reaction formation, denial, and
sublimation. Looking-good individuals reject their feelings of guilt and
inadequacy by overemphasizing the opposite in their thoughts and actions. In
this case, they will appear happy, calm, and together, but deep down that is
hardly the case. They are confused, lonely individuals with no real direction.
Denial is the most common of all defense mechanisms, and looking-good people are
exceptionally good at it. They simply refuse to acknowledge any
anxiety-provoking stimuli. “Everything is coming up roses” for looking-good
individuals. Finally, sublimation is probably the most important defense
mechanisms next to denial. They delay gratification of the Id’s desires by
transforming them into goals of the Ego. In this way, those dangerous desires
and needs are now acceptable societal motivations. Looking-good people tend to
experience an enormous amount of anxiety, and so develop low self-esteem.
Edited:
According to Freud, looking-good people would be fixated in the anal
stage. Looking-good individuals are generally passive-aggressive. They dislike
personal conflict and avoid it. These people tend to be organized, appear to be
“together” or “with it,” obstinate and independent, characteristics of
anal fixation. Besides being fixated, looking-good people use defense mechanisms
to reduce their anxiety. They
use reaction formation, to reject their feelings of guilt and inadequacy by
overemphasizing the opposite in their thoughts and actions. They appear happy,
calm, and together, but deep down is hardly the case. They are confused, lonely
individuals with no real direction. Looking-good people are good at denial by
which they refuse to acknowledge any anxiety-provoking stimuli. “Everything is
coming up roses” for them. Through sublimation, they delay gratification of
the Id’s desires by transforming them into goals of the Ego. In this way,
those dangerous desires and needs are now acceptable societal behaviors.
5. Use KISS: Use
the KISS principle in your writing
Example:
In this statement, Freud is telling us that a
person’s ego reacts in situations of pressure due to psychic trauma. Edited: Freud points out that a
person’s ego reacts with psychic trauma to pressure situations. Example:
Birth order is what Adler
believes motivates a person’s behavior. Adler would classify someone with a
looking good personality as the first born in a family. Some of the
characteristics of a first-born child include, favored, pseudo-parent, and high
achiever, all distinctions of a looking good personality. Because of a looking
good person’s need for approval and high achievement, Adler might say that a
looking good person could very well possess an aggression drive. This drive
would only become apparent if the individual failed at accomplishing his or her
goals. An individual with a looking good personality is usually very social.
Adler created a personality typology with four categories a person would fit
into. He would conclude that a looking good person fits into the socially useful
category. This category is sanguine or cheerful with high social interests and
activity.
Edited:
Adler believed birth order
motivates personality development. People with the looking good personality are
typically the first-born in a family. Some of the characteristics of a
first-born child similar to the looking good trait are: favored, pseudo-parent,
and high achiever. According to Adler, due to their need for approval and high
achievement, looking good people possess an aggression drive. This drive would
become apparent if they failed at accomplishing their goals. Looking good people
are usually very social and in his personality typology, Adler would conclude
that they fit the “socially useful” category. This category is sanguine or
cheerful with high social interests and activity.
Pronoun Antecedent Agreement
1. Watch out for the Agreement Trap: Be sure that your writing does not fall into the trap of pronouns
not agreeing in number with their antecedent noun
Example:
Freud
would probably say that the child’s low self-esteem began to express itself in
the anal stage, through their desire to control things such as defecation. As
the pulling-personality grows older, their desire to exercise control is shown
through their self-reliant, withdrawn nature. This person does not allow
themselves to be known, or be vulnerable, and in this way this person feels that
they have control over their surroundings.
Edited:
Freud would
probably say that people, with the pulling-personality, had their low
self-esteem begin to express itself in the anal stage, through their desire to
control things such as defecation. As they grew older, their desire to exercise
control was shown through their self-reliant and withdrawn nature. These people
do not allow themselves to be known or to be vulnerable. In this way they feel
that they have control over their surroundings and lives.
2. Rules of Pronoun/Antecedent
Agreement
1). A pronoun must agree with its
antecedent in number and gender.
| Antecedent |
Number |
Pronouns |
| The girl |
Singular |
she, her, her's, herself |
| The man |
Singular |
he, him, his, himself |
| The tree |
Singular |
it, its, itself |
| The girls |
Plural |
they, them, their, theirs, themselves |
| The men |
Plural |
they, them, their, theirs, themselves |
| The trees |
Plural |
they, them, their, theirs, themselves |
| People, Clients |
Plural |
they, them, their, theirs, themselves |
2). The antecedent is usually not found in a prepositional phrase:
3). When the antecedent is a noun joined by either-or or neither-nor
the noun closest to the pronoun is used as the antecedent for the agreement
4). When the antecedent is a compound subject (two nouns joined
by a coordinating conjunction), the pronoun will be plural.
-
Jane and Tom own their own home.
-
The cat and dog have not eaten their food.
-
Songs and poetry have their place in
education.
5). Phrases such as one of, each of, and either
of require a singular pronoun for agreement.
-
One of the girls lost her keys.
-
Every one of the classes has its own schedule.
-
Neither of the men had their bikes stolen.
6). Phrases such as both of and some of usually
require plural pronouns for agreement.
7). When the antecedent is a collective noun (a noun which is
singular in form but refers to a group of people or things), the pronoun must be
singular for agreement.
-
The Looking Good personality is a trait of low
self-esteem which seeks to place the people in his or her life.
-
The committee planned its meeting for November
10th.
-
The family announced its reunion date.
-
The jury made its decision.
8). When the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun, the pronoun
will be singular.
9). Avoid sentences with cluttered pronouns by use of plurals.
-
Cluttered pronouns example: When a person
practices what he or she preaches, he or she tends to be
somewhat cautious in giving advice.
-
Edited: When people practice what they
preach, they tend to be somewhat cautious in giving advice
-
Recommended forms for papers: Clients, People,
Groups, Persons, etc.....
Online Grammar Resources
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